Supermassive black hole binaries (SMBHBs) are an inevitable consequence of galaxy mergers. At sub-parsec separations, they are practically impossible to resolve and the most promising technique is to search for quasars with periodic variability. However, searches for quasar periodicity in time-domain data are challenging due to the stochastic variability of quasars. In this paper, we used Bayesian methods to disentangle periodic SMBHB signals from intrinsic damped random walk (DRW) variability in AGN light curves. We simulated a wide variety of realistic DRW and DRW+sine light curves. Their observed properties are modeled after the Catalina Real-time Transient Survey (CRTS) and expected properties of the upcoming Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory. Through a careful analysis of parameter estimation and Bayesian model selection, we investigated the range of parameter space for which binary systems can be detected. We also examined which DRW signals can mimic periodicity and be falsely classified as binary candidates. We found that periodic signals are more easily detectable if the period is short or the amplitude of the signal is large compared to the contribution of the DRW noise. We saw similar detection rates both in the CRTS and LSST-like simulations, while the false detection rate depends on the quality of the data and is minimal in LSST. Our idealized simulations provide an excellent way to uncover the intrinsic limitations in quasar periodicity searches and set the stage for future searches for SMBHBs.
more »
« less
Three cases of optical periodic modulation in Active Galactic Nuclei
We report on the case of optical periodic modulation discovered in two Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) and one candidate AGN. Analysing the archival optical data obtained from large transient surveys, namely the Catalina Real-Transient Survey (CRTS) and the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF), we find periodicities of 2169.7, 2103.1, and 1462.6 d in sources J0122 + 1032, J1007 + 1248 (or PG 1004 + 1248), and J2131 − 1127, respectively. The optical spectra of the first two indicate that the first is likely a blazar and the second a type 1 Seyfert galaxy, and while no spectroscopic information is available for the third one, its overall properties suggest that it is likely an AGN. In addition, mid-infrared (MIR) light-curve data of the three sources, taken by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), are also analysed. The light curves show significant variations, but not appearing related to the optical periodicities. Based on the widely discussed supermassive black hole binary (SMBHB) scenario, we discuss the origin of the optical modulation. Two possible interesting features, an additional 162-d short optical periodicity in J2131 − 1127 and the consistency of the X-ray flux variations of J1007 + 1248 with its optical periodicity, are also discussed within the SMBHB scenario.
more » « less- NSF-PAR ID:
- 10410029
- Publisher / Repository:
- Oxford University Press
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
- Volume:
- 522
- Issue:
- 2
- ISSN:
- 0035-8711
- Format(s):
- Medium: X Size: p. 2928-2935
- Size(s):
- ["p. 2928-2935"]
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
More Like this
-
-
more » « less
ABSTRACT The scarce optical variability studies in spectrally classified Type 2 active galactic nuclei (AGNs) have led to the discovery of anomalous objects that are incompatible with the simplest unified models (UMs). This paper focuses on the exploration of different variability features that allow to distinguish between obscured, Type 2 AGNs and the variable, unobscured Type 1s. We analyse systematically the Zwicky Transient Facility, 2.5-yr-long light curves of ∼15 000 AGNs from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 16, which are generally considered Type 2s due to the absence of strong broad emission lines (BELs). Consistent with the expectations from the UM, the variability features are distributed differently for distinct populations, with spectrally classified weak Type 1s showing one order of magnitude larger variances than the Type 2s. We find that the parameters given by the damped random walk model lead to broader H α equivalent width for objects with τg > 16 d and long-term structure function SF∞, g > 0.07 mag. By limiting the variability features, we find that ∼11 per cent of Type 2 sources show evidence for optical variations. A detailed spectral analysis of the most variable sources (∼1 per cent of the Type 2 sample) leads to the discovery of misclassified Type 1s with weak BELs and changing-state candidates. This work presents one of the largest systematic investigations of Type 2 AGN optical variability to date, in preparation for future large photometric surveys.
-
Abstract We examine the light curves of two quasars, motivated by recent suggestions that a supermassive black hole binary (SMBHB) can exhibit sharp lensing spikes. We model the variability of each light curve as due to a combination of two relativistic effects: the orbital relativistic Doppler boost and gravitational binary self-lensing. In order to model each system we extend previous Doppler plus self-lensing models to include eccentricity. The first quasar is identified in optical data as a binary candidate with a 20-yr period (Ark 120), and shows a prominent spike. For this source, we rule out the lensing hypothesis and disfavor the Doppler-boost hypothesis due to discrepancies in the measured vs. recovered values of the binary mass and optical spectral slope. The second source, which we nickname Spikey, is the rare case of an active galactic nucleus (AGN) identified in Kepler’s high-quality, high-cadence photometric data. For this source, we find a model, consisting of a combination of Doppler modulation and a narrow symmetric lensing spike, consistent with an eccentric SMBHB with mass Mtot = 3 × 107M⊙, rest-frame orbital period T = 418 days, eccentricity e = 0.5, and seen at an inclination 8○ from edge-on. This interpretation can be tested by monitoring Spikey for periodic behavior and recurring flares in the next few years. In preparation for such monitoring we present the first X-ray observations of this object taken by the Neil Gehrels Swift observatory.more » « less
-
Aims. We present a variability-, color-, and morphology-based classifier designed to identify multiple classes of transients and persistently variable and non-variable sources from the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) Data Release 11 (DR11) light curves of extended and point sources. The main motivation to develop this model was to identify active galactic nuclei (AGN) at different redshift ranges to be observed by the 4MOST Chilean AGN/Galaxy Evolution Survey (ChANGES). That being said, it also serves as a more general time-domain astronomy study. Methods. The model uses nine colors computed from CatWISE and Pan-STARRS1 (PS1), a morphology score from PS1, and 61 single-band variability features computed from the ZTF DR11 g and r light curves. We trained two versions of the model, one for each ZTF band, since ZTF DR11 treats the light curves observed in a particular combination of field, filter, and charge-coupled device (CCD) quadrant independently. We used a hierarchical local classifier per parent node approach-where each node is composed of a balanced random forest model. We adopted a taxonomy with 17 classes: non-variable stars, non-variable galaxies, three transients (SNIa, SN-other, and CV/Nova), five classes of stochastic variables (lowz-AGN, midz-AGN, highz-AGN, Blazar, and YSO), and seven classes of periodic variables (LPV, EA, EB/EW, DSCT, RRL, CEP, and Periodic-other). Results. The macro-averaged precision, recall, and F1-score are 0.61, 0.75, and 0.62 for the g -band model, and 0.60, 0.74, and 0.61, for the r -band model. When grouping the four AGN classes (lowz-AGN, midz-AGN, highz-AGN, and Blazar) into one single class, its precision-recall, and F1-score are 1.00, 0.95, and 0.97, respectively, for both the g and r bands. This demonstrates the good performance of the model in classifying AGN candidates. We applied the model to all the sources in the ZTF/4MOST overlapping sky (−28 ≤ Dec ≤ 8.5), avoiding ZTF fields that cover the Galactic bulge (| gal_b | ≤ 9 and gal_l ≤ 50). This area includes 86 576 577 light curves in the g band and 140 409 824 in the r band with 20 or more observations and with an average magnitude in the corresponding band lower than 20.5. Only 0.73% of the g -band light curves and 2.62% of the r -band light curves were classified as stochastic, periodic, or transient with high probability ( P init ≥ 0.9). Even though the metrics obtained for the two models are similar, we find that, in general, more reliable results are obtained when using the g -band model. With it, we identified 384 242 AGN candidates (including low-, mid-, and high-redshift AGN and Blazars), 287 156 of which have P init ≥ 0.9.more » « less
-
more » « less
ABSTRACT AT2019pev is a nuclear transient in a narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxy at z = 0.096. The archival ultraviolet, optical, and infrared data showed features of both tidal disruption events and active galactic nuclei (AGNs), and its nature is not fully understood. We present detailed X-ray observations of AT2019pev taken with Swift, Chandra, and NICER over 173 d of its evolution since the first Swift XRT epoch. The X-ray luminosity increases by a factor of 5 in 5 d from the first Swift XRT epoch to the light-curve peak. The light curve decays by a factor of 10 over ∼75 d and then flattens with a weak re-brightening trend at late times. The X-ray spectra show a ‘harder-when-brighter’ trend before peak and a ‘harder-when-fainter’ trend after peak, which may indicate a transition of accretion states. The archival ground-based optical observations show similar time evolution as the X-ray light curves. Beyond the seasonal limit of the ground-based observations, the Gaia light curve is rising towards an equally bright or brighter peak 223 d after the optical discovery. Combining our X-ray analysis and archival multiwavelength data, AT2019pev more closely resembles an AGN transient.
