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1. The SARS-CoV-2 S1 Spike Protein Promotes MAPK and NF-kB Activation in Human Lung Cells and Inflammatory Cytokine Production in Human Lung and Intestinal Epithelial Cells

   https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10101996  

   Forsyth, Christopher B.; Zhang, Lijuan; Bhushan, Abhinav; Swanson, Barbara; Zhang, Li; Mamede, João I.; Voigt, Robin M.; Shaikh, Maliha; Engen, Phillip A.; Keshavarzian, Ali (October 2022, Microorganisms)

   The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic began in January 2020 in Wuhan, China, with a new coronavirus designated SARS-CoV-2. The principal cause of death from COVID-19 disease quickly emerged as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). A key ARDS pathogenic mechanism is the “Cytokine Storm”, which is a dramatic increase in inflammatory cytokines in the blood. In the last two years of the pandemic, a new pathology has emerged in some COVID-19 survivors, in which a variety of long-term symptoms occur, a condition called post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC) or “Long COVID”. Therefore, there is an urgent need to better understand the mechanisms of the virus. The spike protein on the surface of the virus is composed of joined S1–S2 subunits. Upon S1 binding to the ACE2 receptor on human cells, the S1 subunit is cleaved and the S2 subunit mediates the entry of the virus. The S1 protein is then released into the blood, which might be one of the pivotal triggers for the initiation and/or perpetuation of the cytokine storm. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the S1 spike protein is sufficient to activate inflammatory signaling and cytokine production, independent of the virus. Our data support a possible role for the S1 spike protein in the activation of inflammatory signaling and cytokine production in human lung and intestinal epithelial cells in culture. These data support a potential role for the SARS-CoV-2 S1 spike protein in COVID-19 pathogenesis and PASC. 

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2. Multicellular 3D Neurovascular Unit Model for Assessing Hypoxia and Neuroinflammation Induced Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-66487-8  

   Nzou, G; Wicks, R. T.; N. R., Mekky; G. A., Seale; S. A., Aya; ... & Atala, A. J (June 2020, Scientific reports)

   The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a dynamic component of the brain-vascular interface that maintains brain homeostasis and regulates solute permeability into brain tissue. The expression of tight junction proteins between adjacent endothelial cells and the presence of efflux proteins prevents entry of foreign substances into the brain parenchyma. BBB dysfunction, however, is evident in many neurological disorders including ischemic stroke, trauma, and chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Currently, major contributors to BBB dysfunction are not well understood. Here, we employed a multicellular 3D neurovascular unit organoid containing human brain microvascular endothelial cells, pericytes, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes and neurons to model the effects of hypoxia and neuroinflammation on BBB function. Organoids were cultured in hypoxic chamber with 0.1% O2 for 24 hours. Organoids cultured under this hypoxic condition showed increased permeability, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and increased oxidative stress. The anti-inflammatory agents, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, demonstrated protection by reducing inflammatory cytokine levels in the organoids under hypoxic conditions. Through the assessment of a free radical scavenger and an anti-inflammatory endocannabinoid, we hereby report the utility of the model in drug development for drug candidates that may reduce the effects of ROS and inflammation under disease conditions. This 3D organoid model recapitulates characteristics of BBB dysfunction under hypoxic physiological conditions and when exposed to exogenous neuroinflammatory mediators and hence may have potential in disease modeling and therapeutic development. 

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3. Mechanistic insights into SARS-CoV-2 spike protein induction of the chemokine CXCL10

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-61906-6  

   Ghazanfari, Davoud; Courreges, Maria Cecilia; Belinski, Lydia E; Hogrell, Michael J; Lloyd, Jacob; C Bergmeier, Stephen; McCall, Kelly D; Goetz, Douglas J (December 2024, Scientific Reports)

   Abstract During a SARS-CoV-2 infection, macrophages recognize viral components resulting in cytokine production. While this response fuels virus elimination, overexpression of cytokines can lead to severe COVID-19. Previous studies suggest that the spike protein (S) of SARS-CoV-2 can elicit cytokine production via the transcription factor NF-κB and the toll-like receptors (TLRs). In this study, we found that: (i) S and the S2 subunit induceCXCL10, a chemokine implicated in severe COVID-19, gene expression by human macrophage cells (THP-1); (ii) a glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibitor attenuates this induction; (iii) S and S2 do not activate NF-κB but do activate the transcription factor IRF; (iv) S and S2 do not require TLR2 to elicit CXCL10 production or activate IRF; and (v) S and S2 elicit CXCL10 production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We also discovered that the cellular response, or lack thereof, to S and S2 is a function of the recombinant S and S2 used. While such a finding raises the possibility of confounding LPS contamination, we offer evidence that potential contaminating LPS does not underly induced increases in CXCL10. Combined, these results provide insights into the complex immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and suggest possible therapeutic targets for severe COVID-19. 

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4. Studying the Inflammatory Responses to Amyloid Beta Oligomers in Brain-Specific Pericyte and Endothelial Co-Culture From Human Stem Cells

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fceng.2022.927188  

   Marzano, Mark; Chen, Xingchi; Russell, Teal A.; Medina, Angelica; Wang, Zizheng; Hua, Timothy; Zeng, Changchun; Wang, Xueju; Sang, Qing-Xiang; Tang, Hengli; et al (July 2022, Frontiers in Chemical Engineering)

   Background: Recently, the in vitro blood–brain barrier (BBB) models derived from human pluripotent stem cells have been given extensive attention in therapeutics due to the implications they have with the health of the central nervous system. It is essential to create an accurate BBB model in vitro in order to better understand the properties of the BBB, and how it can respond to inflammatory stimulation and be passed by targeted or non-targeted cell therapeutics, more specifically extracellular vesicles. Methods: Brain-specific pericytes (iPCs) were differentiated from iPSK3 cells using dual SMAD signaling inhibitors and Wnt activation plus fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2). The derived cells were characterized by immunostaining, flow cytometry, and RT-PCR. In parallel, blood vessels organoids were derived using Wnt activation, BMP4, FGF2, VEGF, and SB431542. The organoids were replated and treated with retinoic acid to enhance the blood–brain barrier (BBB) features in the differentiated brain endothelial cells (iECs). Co-culture was performed for iPCs and iECs in the transwell system and 3D microfluidics channels. Results: The derived iPCs expressed common markers PDGFRb and NG2, and brain-specific genes FOXF2 , ABCC9 , KCNJ8 , and ZIC1 . The derived iECs expressed common endothelial cell markers CD31, VE-cadherin, and BBB-associated genes BRCP , GLUT-1 , PGP , ABCC1 , OCLN , and SLC2A1 . The co-culture of the two cell types responded to the stimulation of amyloid β42 oligomers by the upregulation of the expression of TNFa , IL6 , NFKB , Casp3 , SOD2 , and TP53 . The co-culture also showed the property of trans-endothelial electrical resistance. The proof of concept vascularization strategy was demonstrated in a 3D microfluidics-based device. Conclusion: The derived iPCs and iECs have brain-specific properties, and the co-culture of iPCs and iECs provides an in vitro BBB model that show inflammatory response. This study has significance in establishing micro-physiological systems for neurological disease modeling and drug screening. 

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5. SARS-CoV-2 specific antibody trajectories in mothers and infants over two months following maternal infection

   https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.1015002  

   Martin, Melanie A.; Keith, Monica; Pace, Ryan M.; Williams, Janet E.; Ley, Sylvia H.; Barbosa-Leiker, Celestina; Caffé, Beatrice; Smith, Caroline B.; Kunkle, Amanda; Lackey, Kimberly A.; et al (October 2022, Frontiers in Immunology)

   Infants exposed to caregivers infected with SARS-CoV-2 may have heightened infection risks relative to older children due to their more intensive care and feeding needs. However, there has been limited research on COVID-19 outcomes in exposed infants beyond the neonatal period. Between June 2020 – March 2021, we conducted interviews and collected capillary dried blood spots from 46 SARS-CoV-2 infected mothers and their infants (aged 1-36 months) for up to two months following maternal infection onset (COVID+ group, 87% breastfeeding). Comparative data were also collected from 26 breastfeeding mothers with no known SARS-CoV-2 infection or exposures (breastfeeding control group), and 11 mothers who tested SARS-CoV-2 negative after experiencing symptoms or close contact exposure (COVID- group, 73% breastfeeding). Dried blood spots were assayed for anti-SARS-CoV-2 S-RBD IgG and IgA positivity and anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1 + S2 IgG concentrations. Within the COVID+ group, the mean probability of seropositivity among infant samples was lower than that of corresponding maternal samples (0.54 and 0.87, respectively, for IgG; 0.33 and 0.85, respectively, for IgA), with likelihood of infant infection positively associated with the number of maternal symptoms and other household infections reported. COVID+ mothers reported a lower incidence of COVID-19 symptoms among their infants as compared to themselves and other household adults, and infants had similar PCR positivity rates as other household children. No samples returned by COVID- mothers or their infants tested antibody positive. Among the breastfeeding control group, 44% of mothers but none of their infants tested antibody positive in at least one sample. Results support previous research demonstrating minimal risks to infants following maternal COVID-19 infection, including for breastfeeding infants. 

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