Resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs) have come full-circle in the past 10 years after their demonstration in the early 1990s
as the fastest room-temperature semiconductor oscillator, displaying experimental results up to 712 GHz and fmax values
exceeding 1.0 THz [1]. Now the RTD is once again the preeminent electronic oscillator above 1.0 THz and is being
implemented as a coherent source [2] and a self-oscillating mixer [3], amongst other applications. This paper concerns
RTD electroluminescence – an effect that has been studied very little in the past 30+ years of RTD development, and not
at room temperature. We present experiments and modeling of an n-type In0.53Ga0.47As/AlAs double-barrier RTD
operating as a cross-gap light emitter at ~300K. The MBE-growth stack is shown in Fig. 1(a). A 15-μm-diam-mesa
device was defined by standard planar processing including a top annular ohmic contact with a 5-μm-diam pinhole in the
center to couple out enough of the internal emission for accurate free-space power measurements [4]. The emission spectra
have the behavior displayed in Fig. 1(b), parameterized by bias voltage (VB). The long wavelength emission edge is at
= 1684 nm - close to the In0.53Ga0.47As bandgap energy of Ug ≈ 0.75 eV at 300 K. The spectral peaks for VB = 2.8 and
3.0 V both occur around = 1550 nm (h = 0.75 eV), so blue-shifted relative to the peak of the “ideal”, bulk InGaAs
emission spectrum shown in Fig. 1(b) [5]. These results are consistent with the model displayed in Fig. 1(c), whereby
the broad emission peak is attributed to the radiative recombination between electrons accumulated on the emitter side,
and holes generated on the emitter side by interband tunneling with current density Jinter. The blue-shifted main peak is
attributed to the quantum-size effect on the emitter side, which creates a radiative recombination rate RN,2 comparable to
the band-edge cross-gap rate RN,1. Further support for this model is provided by the shorter wavelength and weaker
emission peak shown in Fig. 1(b) around = 1148 nm. Our quantum mechanical calculations attribute this to radiative
recombination RR,3 in the RTD quantum well between the electron ground-state level E1,e, and the hole level E1,h.
To further test the model and estimate quantum efficiencies, we conducted optical power measurements using a
large-area Ge photodiode located ≈3 mm away from the RTD pinhole, and having spectral response between 800 and
1800 nm with a peak responsivity of ≈0.85 A/W at =1550 nm. Simultaneous I-V and L-V plots were obtained and
are plotted in Fig. 2(a) with positive bias on the top contact (emitter on the bottom). The I-V curve displays a pronounced
NDR region having a current peak-to-valley current ratio of 10.7 (typical for In0.53Ga0.47As RTDs). The external quantum
efficiency (EQE) was calculated from EQE = e∙IP/(∙IE∙h) where IP is the photodiode dc current and IE the RTD current.
The plot of EQE is shown in Fig. 2(b) where we see a very rapid rise with VB, but a maximum value (at VB= 3.0 V) of
only ≈2×10-5. To extract the internal quantum efficiency (IQE), we use the expression EQE= c ∙i ∙r ≡ c∙IQE where
ci, and r are the optical-coupling, electrical-injection, and radiative recombination efficiencies, respectively [6]. Our
separate optical calculations yield c≈3.4×10-4 (limited primarily by the small pinhole) from which we obtain the curve
of IQE plotted in Fig. 2(b) (right-hand scale). The maximum value of IQE (again at VB = 3.0 V) is 6.0%. From the implicit
definition of IQE in terms of i and r given above, and the fact that the recombination efficiency in In0.53Ga0.47As is
likely limited by Auger scattering, this result for IQE suggests that i might be significantly high.
To estimate i, we have used the experimental total current of Fig. 2(a), the Kane two-band model of interband
tunneling [7] computed in conjunction with a solution to Poisson’s equation across the entire structure, and a rate-equation
model of Auger recombination on the emitter side [6] assuming a free-electron density of 2×1018 cm3. We focus on the
high-bias regime above VB = 2.5 V of Fig. 2(a) where most of the interband tunneling should occur in the depletion region
on the collector side [Jinter,2 in Fig. 1(c)]. And because of the high-quality of the InGaAs/AlAs heterostructure (very few
traps or deep levels), most of the holes should reach the emitter side by some combination of drift, diffusion, and tunneling
through the valence-band double barriers (Type-I offset) between InGaAs and AlAs. The computed interband current
density Jinter is shown in Fig. 3(a) along with the total current density Jtot. At the maximum Jinter (at VB=3.0 V) of 7.4×102
A/cm2, we get i = Jinter/Jtot = 0.18, which is surprisingly high considering there is no p-type doping in the device. When
combined with the Auger-limited r of 0.41 and c ≈ 3.4×10-4, we find a model value of IQE = 7.4% in good agreement
with experiment. This leads to the model values for EQE plotted in Fig. 2(b) - also in good agreement with experiment.
Finally, we address the high Jinter and consider a possible universal nature of the light-emission mechanism. Fig.
3(b) shows the tunneling probability T according to the Kane two-band model in the three materials, In0.53Ga0.47As, GaAs,
and GaN, following our observation of a similar electroluminescence mechanism in GaN/AlN RTDs (due to strong
polarization field of wurtzite structures) [8]. The expression is Tinter = (2/9)∙exp[(-2 ∙Ug
2 ∙me)/(2h∙P∙E)], where Ug is the
bandgap energy, P is the valence-to-conduction-band momentum matrix element, and E is the electric field. Values for
the highest calculated internal E fields for the InGaAs and GaN are also shown, indicating that Tinter in those structures
approaches values of ~10-5. As shown, a GaAs RTD would require an internal field of ~6×105 V/cm, which is rarely
realized in standard GaAs RTDs, perhaps explaining why there have been few if any reports of room-temperature
electroluminescence in the GaAs devices.
[1] E.R. Brown,et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 58, 2291, 1991. [5] S. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd Ed. 12.2.1 (Wiley, 1981).
[2] M. Feiginov et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 99, 233506, 2011. [6] L. Coldren, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits, (Wiley, 1995).
[3] Y. Nishida et al., Nature Sci. Reports, 9, 18125, 2019. [7] E.O. Kane, J. of Appl. Phy 32, 83 (1961).
[4] P. Fakhimi, et al., 2019 DRC Conference Digest. [8] T. Growden, et al., Nature Light: Science & Applications 7, 17150 (2018).
[5] S. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd Ed. 12.2.1 (Wiley, 1981).
[6] L. Coldren, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits, (Wiley, 1995).
[7] E.O. Kane, J. of Appl. Phy 32, 83 (1961).
[8] T. Growden, et al., Nature Light: Science & Applications 7, 17150 (2018).
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Design of Atomically Precise Nanoscale Negative Differential Resistance Devices
Downscaling device dimensions to the nanometer range raises significant challenges to traditional device design, due to potential current leakage across nanoscale dimensions and the need to maintain reproducibility while dealing with atomic‐scale components. Here, negative differential resistance (NDR) devices based on atomically precise graphene nanoribbons are investigated. The computational evaluation of the traditional double‐barrier resonant‐tunneling diode NDR structure uncovers important issues at the atomic scale, concerning the need to minimize the tunneling current between the leads while achieving high peak current. A new device structure consisting of multiple short segments that enables high current by the alignment of electronic levels across the segments while enlarging the tunneling distance between the leads is proposed. The proposed structure can be built with atomic precision using a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) tip during an intermediate stage in the synthesis of an armchair nanoribbon. An experimental evaluation of the band alignment at the interfaces and an STM image of the fabricated active part of the device are also presented. This combined theoretical–experimental approach opens a new avenue for the design of nanoscale devices with atomic precision.
more » « less- Award ID(s):
- 1740309
- NSF-PAR ID:
- 10462888
- Publisher / Repository:
- Wiley Blackwell (John Wiley & Sons)
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Advanced Theory and Simulations
- Volume:
- 2
- Issue:
- 2
- ISSN:
- 2513-0390
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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Abstract Resonant tunneling diodes with negative differential resistance (NDR) have attracted significant attention due to their unique quantum resonant tunneling phenomena and potential applications in terahertz emission/detection and high‐density logic/memory. In this paper, resonant tunneling devices, where the carriers tunnel through a hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) barrier sandwiched by two black phosphorus (BP) layers, are explored. The resonance occurs when the energy bands of the two black phosphorus layers are aligned. The conductive atomic force microscopy (CAFM) measurements reveal prominent NDR peaks with large peak‐to‐valley ratios at room temperature. It is found that the positions of the NDR peaks are very sensitive to the amplitude and the shape of the voltage waveform used in CAFM, which can be explained by the charge trapping effect. Furthermore, resonant tunneling transistors are demonstrated based on BP/hBN/BP stacks in which the locations of the NDR peaks are tunable by the electrostatic gating. As compared to the traditional tunneling diodes based on bulk materials, the tunneling devices based on thin boron nitride tunneling barrier and high mobility black phosphorus offer ultra‐high‐speed response. This feature, together with the NDR characteristics, provides the potential for applications in THz oscillators and multi‐value logic devices.
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