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In situ sensors that collect high-frequency data are used increasingly to monitor aquatic environments. These sensors are prone to technical errors, resulting in unrecorded observations and/or anomalous values that are subsequently removed and create gaps in time series data. We present a framework based on generalized additive and auto-regressive models to recover these missing data. To mimic sporadically missing (i) single observations and (ii) periods of contiguous observations, we randomly removed (i) point data and (ii) day- and week-long sequences of data from a two-year time series of nitrate concentration data collected from Arikaree River, USA, where synoptically collected water temperature, turbidity, conductance, elevation, and dissolved oxygen data were available. In 72% of cases with missing point data, predicted values were within the sensor precision interval of the original value, although predictive ability declined when sequences of missing data occurred. Precision also depended on the availability of other water quality covariates. When covariates were available, even a sudden, event-based peak in nitrate concentration was reconstructed well. By providing a promising method for accurate prediction of missing data, the utility and confidence in summary statistics and statistical trends will increase, thereby assisting the effective monitoring and management of fresh waters and other at-risk ecosystems.
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Understanding links between water-quality variables and nitrate concentration in freshwater streams using high frequency sensor data
Real-time monitoring usingin-situsensors is becoming a common approach for measuring water-quality within watersheds. High-frequency measurements produce big datasets that present opportunities to conduct new analyses for improved understanding of water-quality dynamics and more effective management of rivers and streams. Of primary importance is enhancing knowledge of the relationships between nitrate, one of the most reactive forms of inorganic nitrogen in the aquatic environment, and other water-quality variables. We analysed high-frequency water-quality data fromin-situsensors deployed in three sites from different watersheds and climate zones within the National Ecological Observatory Network, USA. We used generalised additive mixed models to explain the nonlinear relationships at each site between nitrate concentration and conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, water temperature, and elevation. Temporal auto-correlation was modelled with an auto-regressive–moving-average (ARIMA) model and we examined the relative importance of the explanatory variables. Total deviance explained by the models was high for all sites (99%). Although variable importance and the smooth regression parameters differed among sites, the models explaining the most variation in nitrate contained the same explanatory variables. This study demonstrates that building a model for nitrate using the same set of explanatory water-quality variables is achievable, even for sites with vastly different environmental and climatic characteristics. Applying such models will assist managers to select cost-effective water-quality variables to monitor when the goals are to gain a spatial and temporal in-depth understanding of nitrate dynamics and adapt management plans accordingly.
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- PAR ID:
- 10494127
- Editor(s):
- Larsen, Stefano
- Publisher / Repository:
- PLOS One
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- PLOS ONE
- Volume:
- 18
- Issue:
- 6
- ISSN:
- 1932-6203
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- e0287640
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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- Free Publicly Accessible Full Text
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Accepted Manuscript1.0
- Journal Article:
- https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287640
