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We investigate the implications of prolonging the equilibrium crystallization (EQX) stage of lunar magma ocean (LMO) solidification beyond the oft-modeled 50% volume solids, to 60%. Most models of two-stage LMO crystallization halt the EQX phase once 50% of a molten Moon (post-core formation) solidifies, after which the remaining 50% of the LMO solidifies via fractional crystallization (FRX). We quantitatively show through a simple scaling analysis that compares crystal settling velocity to vertical convective velocity that the early EQX regime can operate up to (and possible even slightly beyond) 60% volume solids. Phases that stabilize during the EQX and FRX regimes are then computed using Perple_X (thermodynamic calculator) along with the hp633ver database and associated activity-composition relations for solid solutions, and consider an adiabat that remains between the liquidus and solidus. Early results show two key findings: 1) only low volumes (~2%) of ilmenite form over ~50-km thick upper mantle layers for both 50% and 60% EQX regimes, suggesting that a mantle overturn may have been sluggish and/or limited in depth (dense ilmenite is thought to have been a critical driver of late-stage mantle mixing); and 2) contrary to most published two-stage LMO models, a refractory-enriched (i.e. high Al2O3) bulk silicate Moon is not required to produce garnet in the lunar mantle, assuming an Earth-like bulk silicate Moon composition with an alumina content of ~4 wt.%. To complement and test these numerical phase equilibria model results, a series of piston-cylinder experiments is underway that simulate the pressures and temperatures experienced by an FeO+TiO2-rich residual LMO in order to assess the volume and distribution of ilmenite produced during LMO solidification. These results are compared to those of the numerical phase equilibria models. Despite the model-dependent nature of these results, they provide a unique insight into potential LMO crystallization that has not been previously considered in the literature.
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This content will become publicly available on September 1, 2026
Implications of a highly convective lunar magma ocean: Insights from phase equilibria modeling
Moonforming impact. During this period, the lunar magma ocean (LMO) lost most of its heat through early vigorous convection, crystallizing and forming an initial cumulate stratigraphy through, potentially, robust equilibrium crystallization followed by fractional crystallization once the LMO became sufficiently viscous. This rheological transition is estimated to have occurred at 50 % to 60 % LMO solidification, and although the petrological effects of the regime switch have been frequently investigated at the lower value, such effects at the upper limit have not been formally examined until now. Given this scenario, we present two new internally consistent, high-resolution models that simulate the solidification of a deep LMO of Earth-like bulk silicate composition at both rheological transition values, focusing on the petrological characteristics of the evolving mantle and crust. The results suggest that increasing the volume of early suspended solids from the oft-examined 50 % to 60 % may lead to non-trivial differences. The appearance of minor mantle garnet without the need to invoke a refractory-element enriched bulk silicate Moon composition, a bulk mantle relatively richer in orthopyroxene than olivine, a lower density upper mantle, and a thinner crust are shown to change systematically between the two models, favoring prolonged early crystal suspension. In addition, we show that late-stage, silica-enriched melts may not have sufficient density to permit plagioclase to continue building a floatation crust and that plagioclase likely sinks or stagnates. As the ability of a lunar magma ocean to suspend crystals is directly tied to the Moon’s early thermal state, the degree of early LMO convection – and the immediate Solar System environment that drives it – require as much consideration in LMO models as more well-investigated parameters such as bulk silicate Moon composition and initial magma ocean depth.
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- Award ID(s):
- 2151038
- PAR ID:
- 10629343
- Publisher / Repository:
- Icarus
- Date Published:
- Journal Name:
- Icarus
- Volume:
- 438
- Issue:
- C
- ISSN:
- 0019-1035
- Page Range / eLocation ID:
- 116629
- Format(s):
- Medium: X
- Sponsoring Org:
- National Science Foundation
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