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We present an agent-based model of manipulating prices in financial markets through spoofing: submitting spurious orders to mislead traders who learn from the order book. Our model captures a complex market environment for a single security, whose common value is given by a dynamic fundamental time series. Agents trade through a limit-order book, based on their private values and noisy observations of the fundamental. We consider background agents following two types of trading strategies: the non-spoofable zero intelligence (ZI) that ignores the order book and the manipulable heuristic belief learning (HBL) that exploits the order book to predict price outcomes. We conduct empirical game-theoretic analysis upon simulated agent payoffs across parametrically different environments and measure the effect of spoofing on market performance in approximate strategic equilibria. We demonstrate that HBL traders can benefit price discovery and social welfare, but their existence in equilibrium renders a market vulnerable to manipulation: simple spoofing strategies can effectively mislead traders, distort prices and reduce total surplus. Based on this model, we propose to mitigate spoofing from two aspects: (1) mechanism design to disincentivize manipulation; and (2) trading strategy variations to improve the robustness of learning from market information. We evaluate the proposed approaches, taking into account potential strategic responses of agents, and characterize the conditions under which these approaches may deter manipulation and benefit market welfare. Our model provides a way to quantify the effect of spoofing on trading behavior and market efficiency, and thus it can help to evaluate the effectiveness of various market designs and trading strategies in mitigating an important form of market manipulation. 

An index-based exchange traded fund (ETF) with underlying securities that trade on the same market creates potential opportunities for arbitrage between price deviations in the ETF and the corresponding index. We examine whether ETF arbitrage transmits small volatility events, termed mini flash crashes, from one of its underlying symbols to another. We address this question in an agent-based, simulated market where agents can trade an ETF and its two underlying symbols. We explore multiple market configurations with active and inactive ETF arbitrageurs. Through empirical game-theoretic analysis, we find that when arbitrageurs actively trade, background traders’ surplus increases because of the increased liquidity. Arbitrage helps the ETF more accurately track the index. We also observe that when one symbol experiences a mini flash crash, arbitrage transmits a price change in the opposite direction to the other symbol. The size of the mini flash crash depends more on the market configuration than the arbitrageurs, but the recovery of the mini flash crash is faster when arbitrageurs are present. 

We study learning-based trading strategies in markets where prices can be manipulated through spoofing: the practice of submitting spurious orders to mislead traders who use market information. To reduce the vulnerability of learning traders to such manipulation, we propose two variations based on the standard heuristic belief learning (HBL) trading strategy, which learns transaction probabilities from market activities observed in an order book. The first variation selectively ignores orders at certain price levels, particularly where spoof orders are likely to be placed. The second considers the full order book, but adjusts its limit order price to correct for bias in decisions based on the learned heuristic beliefs. We employ agent-based simulation to evaluate these variations on two criteria: effectiveness in non-manipulated markets and robustness against manipulation. Background traders can adopt the (non-learning) zero intelligence strategies or HBL, in its basic form or the two variations. We conduct empirical game-theoretic analysis upon simulated payoffs to derive approximate strategic equilibria, and compare equilibrium outcomes across a variety of trading environments. Results show that agents can strategically make use of the option to block orders to improve robustness against spoofing, while retaining a comparable competitiveness in non-manipulated markets. Our second HBL variation exhibits a general improvement over standard HBL, in markets with and without manipulation. Further explorations suggest that traders can enjoy both improved profitability and robustness by combining the two proposed variations. 

We study learning-based trading strategies in markets where prices can be manipulated through spoofing: the practice of submitting spurious orders to mislead traders who use market information. To reduce the vulnerability of learning traders to such manipulation, we propose two variations based on the standard heuristic belief learning (HBL) trading strategy, which learns transaction probabilities from market activities observed in an order book. The first variation selectively ignores orders at certain price levels, particularly where spoof orders are likely to be placed. The second considers the full order book, but adjusts its limit order price to correct for bias in decisions based on the learned heuristic beliefs. We employ agent-based simulation to evaluate these variations on two criteria: effectiveness in non-manipulated markets and robustness against manipulation. Background traders can adopt (non-learning) zero intelligence strategies or HBL, in its basic form or the two variations. We conduct empirical game-theoretic analysis upon simulated payoffs to derive approximate strategic equilibria, and compare equilibrium outcomes across a variety of trading environments. Results show that agents can strategically make use of the option to block orders to improve robustness against spoofing, while retaining a comparable competitiveness in non-manipulated markets. Our second HBL variation exhibits a general improvement over standard HBL, in markets with and without manipulation. Further explorations suggest that traders can enjoy both improved profitability and robustness by combining the two proposed variations. 

We propose an adversarial learning framework to capture the evolving game between a regulator who develops tools to detect market manipulation and a manipulator who obfuscates actions to evade detection. The model includes three main parts: (1) a generator that learns to adapt original manipulation order streams to resemble trading patterns of a normal trader while preserving the manipulation intent; (2) a discriminator that differentiates the adversarially adapted manipulation order streams from normal trading activities; and (3) an agent-based simulator that evaluates the manipulation effect of adapted outputs. We conduct experiments on simulated order streams associated with a manipulator and a market-making agent respectively. We show examples of adapted manipulation order streams that mimic a specified market maker's quoting patterns and appear qualitatively different from the original manipulation strategy we implemented in the simulator. These results demonstrate the possibility of automatically generating a diverse set of (unseen) manipulation strategies that can facilitate the training of more robust detection algorithms.

 

We propose an approach to generate realistic and high-fidelity stock market data based on generative adversarial networks (GANs). Our Stock-GAN model employs a conditional Wasserstein GAN to capture history dependence of orders. The generator design includes specially crafted aspects including components that approximate the market's auction mechanism, augmenting the order history with order-book constructions to improve the generation task. We perform an ablation study to verify the usefulness of aspects of our network structure. We provide a mathematical characterization of distribution learned by the generator. We also propose statistics to measure the quality of generated orders. We test our approach with synthetic and actual market data, compare to many baseline generative models, and find the generated data to be close to real data. 

We propose a cloaking mechanism to deter spoofing, a form of manipulation in financial markets. The mechanism works by symmetrically concealing a specified number of price levels from the inside of the order book. To study the effectiveness of cloaking, we simulate markets populated with background traders and an exploiter, who strategically spoofs to profit. The traders follow two representative bidding strategies: the non-spoofable zero intelligence and the manipulable heuristic belief learning. Through empirical game-theoretic analysis across parametrically different environments, we evaluate surplus accrued by traders, and characterize the conditions under which cloaking mitigates manipulation and benefits market welfare. We further design sophisticated spoofing strategies that probe to reveal cloaked information, and find that the effort and risk exceed the gains.